Re-visiting my Ethnophaulism Study of 1979
by Sachi Sri Kantha, January 19, 2025
Abstract pf Sachi’s Ethnophaulism study (1979)
Introduction
Prof. Mimi Gladstein
Ten years ago, Prof. Mimi Reisel Gladstein, an English language scholar affiliated to the University of Texas El Paso, published a study with the caption, ‘Immigration Issues: Steinbeck’s Continuing Relevance’ in the Steinbeck Review [2015; 12(3) 16-25]. What was interesting for me was the fact that in one paragraph, Prof. Mimi Gladstein cited my 1979 study on the use of ethnophaulisms in Sri Lanka. For it’s relevance to this particular chapter, I reproduce in full, first what she wrote, and make my observations subsequently.
The particular paragraph of Prof Gladstein’s paper is as follows:
“The term of such designations as ‘Okie’ is ethnophaulism. Professor Sachi Sri Kantha defines this term as ‘the universal human trait of using derogatory language to despire another’. The propensity is worldwide, and in a 2001 presentation, Kantha repeats what he had noted twenty years earlier. He cites Sri Lankan examples in which the Sinhalese call Tamils ‘demala’ and the Tamils call the Sinhalese ‘Sinhala-modaya’ – Muslims are referred to as ‘marakkala’. Like the word ‘Okie’, ‘demala’ and ‘marakkala’ are merely derogatory and disrespectful ways of identifying Tamils and Muslims, whereas ‘Sinhala-modaya’ literally means Sinhalese fool. Every language has such ethnophaulisms – Italians call Germans ‘mangin-crauti’ (kraut eaters), and Mexicans call U.S. citizens ‘gringos’. Even in fiction, the term ‘mud blood’ is used in Harry Potter’s wizard world as a derogatory term for those who have part wizard and part human blood.”
My thoughts and Additions in 2025
First, Prof Mimi Gladstein had unfortunately omitted the correct citation of my study, which appeared in the Tamil Nation website (now inactive) in April 4, 2001. The link is as follows: https://tamilnation.org/forum/sachisrikantha/ethnophaulisms [see below also]
Though the correct title of my 1979 presentation was included in the text, the editor of the Tamil Nation website had rephrased my study as ‘Ethnophaulisms on (and of) Tamils’. But, the correct title of my 1979 presentation was ‘Ethnophaulisms in our multi-racial Sri Lankan society.’ Subsequently, I uploaded the complete text in the Research Gate website of my entry on Aug 16, 2014. This link is as follows:
In her 2015 paper, Prof. Goldstein missed this upload as well. Because of this, I also missed a worthy citation, though my 1979 work was cited in the text of her paper in the Steinbeck Review. Nevertheless, this referencing of my 1979 study on ethnophaulism in Sri Lankan society made me happy for two reasons (1) I was cited in a journal devoted to John Steinbeck (1902 – 1968, the 1962 American Nobelist in literature) and (2) the cited main work was Steinbeck’s classic novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939), which later was produced as a movie (1940), starring Henry Fonda as the protagonist Tom Joad.
Abraham Aaron Roback (1890-1965)
Secondly, I cannot claim the definition for the word ‘ethnophaulism’. This word was introduced by Russia-born American linguist Prof. Abraham Aaron Roback (1890 – 1965), in his 1944 book, A Dictionary of International Slurs (Ethnophaulisms), which I acknowledged in my recent essay on ‘Reaching 70 Not Out – part 6’. As I clearly indicated in my 1979 text, I picked up this word from Erdman B. Palmore’s 1962 paper, ‘Ethnophaulisms and Ethnocentrism’ (American Journal of Sociology, 1962; 67 442-445.)
Now, I provide a background story, for this 1979 presentation. The published version of the abstract of my 1979 presentation was a mangled one. It was NOT my original. After I had submitted the abstract in late 1979, I received a letter by Express Post from Mr. Senarat Yapa (Assistant Editor, Sri Lanka Association for Advancement of Science), dated 20th November 1979. The text of it, I reproduce below. [Please see the original version at Letter from Senerath Yapa, Nov 20, 1979]
“Dear Sir,
I refer to your paper to SLAAS Sessions December, 1979 titled ‘Ethnophaulisms in our multi-racial Sri Lankan Society’.
The third paragraph of this paper reads as follows
-
- All racial and ethnic groups use ethnophaulisms to refer to other groups. Eg. ‘para-demala’, ‘Moda Sinhalaya’, ‘Kallathoni’, ‘Thotakkattan’, ‘Thambiya’, ‘ohni’, ‘Parangi’.
I have decided to delete the Section – e.g. ‘Para demala…..’Sohni’, ‘Parangi’. – see P.S.
I will be glad to know your comments by return post.
Yours sincerely,
Signed Mr. D.A.T.A. Senarat Yapa,
Asst. Editor, SLASS
Handwritten P(ost) S(cript) additions
I have also decided to delete the following words from Section (3).
-
- ‘Thosai’ – ‘Vadai’ – ‘Nallenai’ – ‘Panankottai’
- (‘Peethal parangi’) (c) ‘Ummah – ‘Waapah’)
(d) (‘Lebbe’ – ‘Naana’ – ‘Chettiyar’)
Section (3) will now read as
(3) When the out-group is of the same general racial type, most ethnophaulisms express stereotypes at high visible cultural difference. For e.g in (a) food, (b) cloth, (c) language and accent, (d) common first names and common occupation.”
My reply to Mr. Senarat Yapa, sent by Express Post, on Nov 22, 1979 was as follows:
“D.A.T.A. Senarat Yapa,
Asst. Editor, SLAAS
Dear Sir,
Received your express letter, dated 20th Nov 1979, today only. I don’t have any comments to make regarding your decision to delete some sections and words of my abstract on the paper ‘Ethnophaulisms in our multi-racial Sri Lankan Society’.
I fully appreciate your difficulty in handling such a delicate topic.
Thanking you.
Yours sincerely,
Sri Kantha’
Of course, my primary intention then was to make a presentation of my study on ethnophaulism, which had NOT been attempted by any other scholars, as of 1979. So, I had to reluctantly agree to the suggested mangling of my original abstract. Due to my primary line of work in biochemistry and lack of funds for submitting a complete paper to a respected journal, I missed the opportunity to publish this study in a journal. Another factor was, in the pre-digital era of publishing, I couldn’t find a suitable linguistic journal, that could consider my manuscript favorably for publication. The only journal outlet could have been Maledicta (International Journal of Verbal Aggression), published and edited by Reinhold Aman (1936-2019). I came to know about his pioneering work on vulgar language, only in 1995. But, by then, this journal was in declining clout, due to multiple problems with law enforcement authorities faced by idiosyncratic Aman. Like the predicament faced by Mr. Senarat Yapa in 1979, for reasons of political correctness, even now in 2025, quite many editors of journals or websites won’t touch a manuscript on an ethnophaulism study with a barge pole.
An addition in 2025
In addition to my 2001 comments in the Tamil Nation site, on the use of Tamil word ‘kaaka’ (literal meaning, a crow) for Muslims, which got picked up into Sinhalese language, I have long been thinking on how derogatory epithets for Muslims in Sri Lanka, could have originated. Two additional Tamil words (Marakkala minisu or Marakkalayaa = folks who came in wooden boats, and Thamby = younger brother) also gained currency among Sinhalese to disparage Muslim ethnics, as ‘thambiyaa’ or ‘thambila’. While ‘minisu’ is a Sinhalese word referring to people, ‘Marakkalam’ is definitely a Tamil word. The origin and usage of this word should be interpreted as ‘outsiders to the faith’ [Sinhalese being Buddhists and Muslims being practitioners of Islam religion] who arrived in wooden boats from India. Then, to the common Tamil word ‘thamby’. Sinhalese do NOT disparagingly refer to Tamils (either indigenous or of recent Indian origin) as ‘thamby’. Why, they have to refer to Muslims (who also predominantly speak Tamil language) as ‘thamby’. My interpretation (which may need correction) is this. ‘thamby’ is also a slang or offensive word in Tamil, for penis. This is not recorded in Tamil dictionaries. Culturally, while Muslims practice male circumcision, Tamils don’t. Thus, ‘thamby’ came to be tagged by Sinhalese as a derogatory epithet to Muslims in Sri Lanka! If any of the readers have an alternate answer or suggestion, I do welcome them.
****
Selected Writings by Sachi Sri Kantha
Ethnophaulisms on (and of) Tamils
4 April 2001
In four months, it will be 20 years since I left the University of Peradeniya for my postgraduate studies at the University of Illinois. It is no wonder that many things have changed in Sri Lanka and Eelam during the past two decades. But some things never change. One of these is the universal human trait of using derogatory language to despise another ethnic group or group with which one does not feel any fraternal bond.
While reading recent issues of the two Sri Lankan newspapers via internet, I spotted the following three phrases.
- ‘Catching Kallathonis’ [in an article by Lt.L.G.A.Sooriyabandara, Directorate of Military Media, inCeylon Daily News, Feb.26, 2001].
- ‘conflict kaakkas’ (conflict crows), which appeared in C.A.Chandraprema’s commentary entitled, ‘Victor Ivan’s Richard de Zoysa bombshell’ [Islandnewspaper, March 2, 2001]
- ‘komis kaaka’ – a term used by President Chandrika Kumaratunga to refer to a conspicuous private arms dealer, who funded the election campaigns of many ministers of the current Cabinet [editorial ‘Bribe-busting and PA rewards’,Islandnewspaper, March 18, 2001].
The derogatory words [kallathoni and kaaka, which has not entered into any standard English dictionary] in these three phrases brought back memories of a research paper I presented on December 17, 1979, at the 35th Annual Sessions of the Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science, held in Colombo. This paper has not been published in entirety yet. Thus, I wish to present this paper to the readers. It was entitled, ‘Ethnophaulisms in our multi-racial Sri Lankan society’. I wrote this paper, after reading a brief report [‘Ethnophaulisms and Ethnocentrism’] authored by Erdman B.Palmore of Yale University, which appeared in the American Journal of Sociology of January 1962.
Here is the complete text of my December 1979 presentation. When I presented this paper in Colombo, I was a temporary assistant lecturer at the Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya.
Ethnophaulisms in our Multi-Racial Sri Lankan Society
Introduction
Ethnophaulisms are derogatory terms used by the members of one ethnic group to describe the members of another. This word is derived from the Greek root, meaning to disparage an ethnic group.
In Sri Lanka, four ethnic groups are present, namely Sinhalese, Tamils (Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils), Moors-Malays and Burghers. Though social mixing among the ethnic groups occur at every stratum, the use of ethnophaulisms is also not very uncommon.
Erdman Palmore (1962) as well as Peter Rose (1964) have reported on the ethnophaulisms used in the multi-racial American society. Based on these lines, an attempt is made in this study to analyze the ethnophaulisms used in our multi-racial Sri Lankan society.
Method
The derogatory terms, which are popularly used in Sri Lanka were listed and categorized.
Data
The derogatory terms of popular usage are as follows: (Note: Order of priority is not adhered to.)
‘Sinhala-modaya’, ‘Sinhala-kaadaya’, ‘Demala’, ‘Para-demala’, ‘Kallathoni’, ‘Kochchi’, ‘Thotakkaataan’, ‘Vadakkathaiyan’, ‘Thalaiya’ (in campus parlor), ‘Sohni’, ‘Kaaka’, ‘Thambila’, ‘Panankottai’, ‘Peethal Parangi’, ‘Lebbe’, ‘Naana’, ‘Chettiyar’, ‘Tiger = Kottiya’, ‘Thoppi-purati’ etc.
Analysis
In accordance with Palmore, the following generalizations may be made from the analysis of the existing vocabulary of derogatory language.
- All racial and ethnic groups use ethnophaulisms to refer to other groups.
Of Sri Lankan ethnic groups, Sinhalese call Tamils, ‘Demala’, ‘Para-demala’, ‘Thalaiya’; Tamils call Sinhalese, ‘Sinhala-modaya’, ‘Sinhala-kaadaya’; Indian Tamils are called as ‘Kallathoni’ and ‘Kochchi’ by Sinhalese, and as ‘Thotakkattan’ and ‘Vadakkathaiyan’ by indigenous Tamils. Sinhalese call the Moors, ‘Thambila’, and Tamils call them as ‘Sohni’ and ‘Kaaka’. Burghers are called as ‘Parangiya’.
- When the out-group is a different race, most ethnophaulisms express stereotyped physical differences.
The most common physical difference referred to is skin color. Other physical ethnophaulisms refer to the features of the head, mainly nose and eye. Children excel in insulting the members of another group, by referring to the physical differences. E.g: ‘chappai-mookan’, ‘poonai-kannan’.
- When the out-group is of the same general racial type, most ethnophaulisms express stereotypes of highly visible cultural differences.
Cultures may differ as to food, cloth, language and accent, common caste names and common occupations.
(a) food: For example, Sinhalese identify the Tamils as ‘Thosai-vadai-nallennai’. Even the term ‘Panankottai’, a derogatory term referring to Jaffna Tamil and used by all other ethnic groups can be included in this category.
(b) cloth: Burghers from Batticaloa are somewhat shabbily dressed; hence, they are called ‘Peethal-Parangi’ by the other Tamil-speaking ethnic groups inhabiting that region.
(c) language and accent: Although Muslims use Tamil as their mother tongue, their accent varies considerably from that of orthodox users. Their pronounciation of some words like ‘Amma’ and ‘Appa’ are twisted to ‘Umma’ and ‘Waapa’. These twisted terms are used by the Tamils to ridicule the Muslim ethnic group. Even some sentences like, ‘Waapa sootha eeekara?’ are used to undermine their unorthodox usage.
(d) common caste names and common occupations: The words like ‘Lebbe’, ‘Naana’ belonging to Muslim ethnic group, and ‘Chettiyar’ referring to the Indian business community, are the prominent ethnophaulisms belonging to this category.
Discussion
The exhibition of ethnophaulisms occur in the following ways as well.
(1) The repeated reference to the adult servant boy of Indian origin, as ‘Podiyan’.
(2) Portrayals of one group as shrewd trickster, another group as money lender, and inconsiderate businessmen, in the stage, novels and radio in the form of plays (for e.g: ‘He comes from Jaffna’).
Though not all caricatures are unfavorable, the stereotypical pattern portrayed has a tendency to remain stereotypes, and has to be resented, even when they seem favorable to the group described.
(3) The members of the minority groups often affect accents and tell jokes and stories in the gathering with majority community, at their own expense.
Humor is part of every society, and ethnic humor, with our high literacy rate, is very much a part of ours. But, as Rose points out, “the difficult is that, on hearing a joke or story about his group or another, the listener is often unsure whether the teller accepts or rejects the stereotypical characters and characteristics described.” This is especially so, with inter-group humor, tinged with the bitterness of self-abasement.
Conclusion
It is inferred from the above brief analysis, that ethnophaulisms are used in Sri Lanka, by at least some members of all ethnic groups at one time or other. As Rose says, “their use becomes especially dangerous, however, in the hands of certain demagogues in periods of tension.”
Further studies on the origin, the period of popular usage, expiring time of these ethnophaulisms will be of interest to the students of sociology.
References
Palmore, E. (1962). Ethnophaulisms and ethnocentrisms. American Journal of Sociology, vol.67, pp.442-445.
Rose, P. (1964). They and We: Racial and Ethnic Relations in the United States, Random House, New York, pp.102-106.
Postscript in 2001
I concluded my 1979 paper with the sentence, “Further studies on the origin, the period of popular usage, expiring time of these ethnophaulisms will be of interest to the students of sociology.” Thus I add a few sentences now. In my paper I had then included the words, ‘Tiger = Kottiya’ referring to the Eelam Tamils by the Sinhalese. These had just come into use then, following the first proscription order delivered by J.R.Jayewardene on eradicating the Tamil Tigers in Jaffna. By then, the word ‘Panankottai’ had lost its popularity. But I remember well, in early 1960s, when we were school kids in Colombo, I had heard this word ‘Panankottai’ used even by Sinhalese beggars, when we refused to offer them small coins, while waiting for our school bus.
The word ‘kochchi’ popularised by A.E.Goonesinghe, the Sinhalese labor-leader and politician of 1920s to mid-1950s [who was also patron to the then young R.Premadasa] to disparage Indian Tamils and Malayalees also had become obsolete by 1960s.
Currently (since 1983), the English word ‘terrorist’ has become the most dominant ethnophaulism on Eelam Tamils used by the Sinhalese. It is interesting to see when this word will expire from usage. Also of interest to language specialists is the current popularity of the descriptive variants of the word, ‘kaaka’ [such as ‘conflict kaaka’ and ‘komis kaaka’]. There awaits a feast in this area for anyone interested in Tamil and Sinhalese language use.